Rudolf Arnheim, The Dynamics of Architectural Form
(University of California Press, 1978)
Chapters I (Elements of Space), II (Solids and Hollows) & VI (Order and Disorder)
Understanding architecture in its entirety requires more than knowledge of geometry and spatial understanding, it is a deeply interconnected form of almost sculptural art fused with the very tangible and pragmatic framework of a buildings reality of function. Rudolf Arnheim was a Professor of the Psychology of Art at Harvard University and widely published author on perceptual psychology, philosophy and visual artistry, and it is this distinctive psychoanalytical perspective that allows for such a comprehensive synthesis of the aesthetic principles and geometric theoretical elements with the more specific environment of architectural practice and spatial design theory. Arnheim begins his publication with a transcript of his thoughts on architecture and design in relation to the broader fields of creativity, before refining into a personal critique of modern architecture, wherein he cites the loss of design principles in exchange for academic obfuscation. The publication is specific in its content, with clear and precise information overlayed with personal understanding and rhetoric from the author, creating a simultaneous flow of theoretical and practical information that is fittingly, highly psychological in nature.
Architecture can be delineated into several core facets or dynamics, according to Arnheim; these dynamics construct the basis of design which drive architecture through geometrical and pragmatic avenues. The elements of space are identified as the key vehicle of any form of experience, with space acting as the unifying canvas upon which all other elements are connected. Psychologically, the experience of space depends upon the observer and the positioning of what is observed in relative planes of reference, and not necessarily the three dimensions of standard Cartesian coordinate space. Furthermore, the relationship between two dimensional comprehension and the three dimensions of space is considered to be an architectural cornerstone, especially considering the plan and section components of orthographic projection used in architectural drawings. However, Arnheim stresses it is the intrinsic comprehension of subjective geometric space rather that should be at the heart of architectural design, with the capacity to employ shape and form within space to create subjective experiences as opposed to simply constructing a spatial entity.
This subjectivity of space is held as the principle of architecture as a whole, defining how we experience buildings, streets and all other substructures within space and spaces themselves. Arnheim further analyses space in architecture through the psychological experiences defined by geometric and spatial arrangements in their opposing forms: proportion and disproportion, symmetry and asymmetry, density and sparsity and the impacts these have upon various architectural elements. This dualistic study is very useful, especially in relation to the geometric foundations upon which the spaces are analysed, as they form a fundamental basis for the understanding of space and more importantly how space interacts with human perception to create experience, using a physical environment to influence a psychological mindset.
It is the element of human thought and the creativity of design that Arnheim perceives as architecture's greatest asset, whereby perceptual space is utilised to become the embodiment of thought through the process of architectural design. This ability to encompass our physical needs of shelter, comfort and function into more than simple functional, comfortable shelters by incorporating deeper thought, metaphor and complex emotional and psychological forces means that architecture is an art-form without equal, surpassing the realms of artistic thought alone by combining them with the practical, functional and structural understanding of architecture. The interrelationship to humanity is inseparable from architectural design, as ultimately the perceptual spaces are inhabited by people, even if only temporarily; this inhabitation forming Arnheim's own definition of architecture as a visual, physical and creative form unto itself.
In summary, The Dynamics of Architectural Form is an exploration of the geometric and spatial realm through a psychological perspective, studying the intense interrelationships behind structures and the human perception of space within architecture and beyond. Arnheim's visual and psychoanalytical study of the geometry present in architecture and the built environment is insightful and instructional, based on the more theoretical notions and higher level philosophical and psychological abstractions but rooted firmly in the tangible and measurable reality of the physical world we inhabit and construct around ourselves.
Bibliography of Supporting Sources:
Giuseppa Di Cristina, Architecture and Science (Chichester : Wiley Academy, 2001)
Intersection study between the clinical and precise world of measurements and observation and the creative and refined artistic elements of the architectural form. Illustrative of the various overlaps and interrelationships between the scientific world and the world we build.
Peter Nicholson, Principles of Architecture (Oxford: J Barfield, 1809)
De-constructive geometric studies into form and their places in architecture and ornamentation. Parabolic structures, circular derivations and spiral forms as well as radials and projections are all studied broadly, with further details expanded upon through their application in architectural practice.
James Howard Gore, Plane and Solid Geometry (New York: Longmans, 1899)
Intensive exposition of two dimensional and three dimensional shapes, how they are constructed, defined and analysed using mathematics. The physical and mathematical properties of geometric forms, as well as proportions and formulas inherit within standard geometry.
Jonathon Keats, "The Art of Architecture," Dwell, September 2003, 116
Visual artists using architecture as their subject to create works, focussing on the spatial comprehension and perception of buildings, whereby the geometric understanding of architectural structures and the formulation of their representation in art is carried about as an abstract communication of concept.
Benjamin Crowell, Electricity and Magnetism
(Light And Matter, 2000)
Chapters Five (Fields of Force) & Six (Electromagnetism)
The scientific realm is one of clinical precision and quantitative substance, removed from the emotional and philosophical elements associated with the creative and artistic forms present within architecture as explored by the psychologically based geometric studies in Arnheim's The Dynamics of Architectural Form. The methodological and technical features of science's investigation into the natural world are present in Crowell's physics text Electricity and Magnetism, which forms part of an overall study of the science of matter and energy and their interactions, properties and governing laws of the physical and theoretical realm. Instructional and designed to educate, Electricity and Magnetism is clear and exacting in its thorough coverage of the phenomenon of electromagnetic fields, from their generation, induction and manipulation to their equations, analysis and scientific history of discovery and implementation in the modern technological society.
Crowell introduces the concepts of force interrelations through fields, using the simple principles of gravitational attraction and fluid as a recurring comparison for the more complicated dynamics of electromagnetic fields. Seeming as these fields are almost always invisible themselves, the examples of liquids and the parallels of gravity make the concept of force much easier to grasp. The actual forces themselves are transferred without a medium, relating to one another across space without the need for physical exchange, and they induce states of alignment within magnetic isotopes and materials within their field. Magnetic fields are defined as vector fields, showing how at each point along the field lines, there is a direction of orientation and a magnitude, allowing them to be represented by either contours or arrows in 2 or 3 dimensional space. The contours can also be considered a surface for the purpose of 3D representation, showing the distortion and manipulation of a base plane based on the vector field produced by the electromagnetic forces. Multiple sources or field overlaps are calculated based off these vectors following the mathematical rules of vector addition, which means magnetic fields can cancel out in places, creating voids where zero force is experienced.
In science, the distinction between electricity and magnetism is very important, despite their combined terminology of electromagnetism, they are two separate field forms with varying properties. Crowell explains that electrical fields and currents have points of dispersion and convergence, allowing their fields to flow from one point to another as in a current or molecule, whereas magnetic field lines are closed loops, connecting back onto themselves and flowing in a constant path. They are however, intimately related as any changing electric field produces a magnetic field, and vice versa, through the process of induction. Therefore, due to this principle of induction, there are no purely magnetic or purely electric waves as each causes the other to exist alongside it through the well defined but inherently complex relationship between electric and magnetic fields.
One of the principle issues with electromagnetic theory and the particle motion behind the generation of the fields is that they are subject to relative motion and frames of reference as in physics, motion cannot be defined without a reference. The sub atomic particle motion in electrical and magnetic fields and thus electromagnetic induction, is critical to the field forms generated meaning that different observers will perceive different electric and magnetic fields depending on their frame of reference. It is interesting to note that even within the scientific realm at sub atomic levels of precision and measurement, subjectivity still bears an inseparable role within our world and the perception of it.
Electricity and Magnetism is a physics exploration into electromagnetism and the complicated relationships between electrical forces and the magnetic fields produced in turn. Electromagnetic induction and the applications within generators and motors are the key focus of one the chapters, highlighting the relationship between a produced field and the current producing it, as well as the inverse relationship of fields producing currents in an interactive loop cycle of regeneration. The quantum state of electromagnetic forces and the subjectivity of reference are also briefly outlined, as well as the history of scientific research into the field.
Bibliography of Supporting Sources:
Stanley Humphries, Jr., Field Solutions on Computers (New York: CRC Press, 1998)
This title covers digital calculation and representation of magnetic and electric fields, as well as their analysis and numerical modelling. The programming element is kept to a minimum and the focus is on the algorithms and functions that derive field forms and solutions
Terence Barrett, Topological Foundations of Electromagnetism (Singapore: World Scientific, 2008)
Studying the surfaces generated by electromagnetic fields in regards to their topology, such as their deformation and manipulation. Geometrically complex, this book covers in depth the magnetic elements in a scientific context as well as their geometric principles.
W. Cheston, Elementary Theory of Electric and Magnetic Fields (New York: Wiley & Sons, 1964)
Early study into the theoretical background of magnetism and electricity, intensely scientific and filled with algebraic physics equations that could be useful. Includes detailed and specific explorations of various electromagnetic phenomena.
Edward M. Purcell, Electricity and Magnetism (United States: McGraw-Hill, 1985)
A broad study of the physics behind magnetic fields, focusing on the interrelation between magnetic fields and electrical current, as well as the formation of various fields around circuitry. The publications includes a lot of scientific data as well as more practical formulas and methods.
